Resource Mobilization and Political Process Models

Neil Lund

2024-09-10

Recap

Older models emphasizing strain, societal breakdown, grievance give way to newer models that emphasize:

  • The role of organization, structure, and resources in explaining contentious behavior

  • The social and political context for collective action, over studying “crowds” on their own

  • Continuity between conventional state-approved political behavior and non-conventional forms.

  • The importance of rationality over pathologies (even for extreme behaviors like genocide)

Two closely related perspectives termed Resource Mobilization Theory and the Political Process Model exemplify this shift.

Models of contention

Resource Mobilization Theory

Why do we see a surge in civil rights activism in the 1960s?

Resource Mobilization Theory: Civil Rights

Why do we see a surge in civil rights activism in the 1960s?

  • The specific grievances aren’t new
  • Conditions are (arguably) improving.
  • Many participants aren’t directly impacted by the grievance anyway

Resource Mobilization Theory: Civil Rights

“…there is always enough discontent in any society to supply the grass-roots support for a movement” - Turner and Killian (1972)

If we take grievances as a given, what else impedes groups from forming protest movements? You can’t explain variation by pointing to something that is static!

Resource Mobilization Theory: The Free Rider Problem

Civil rights are a collective benefit, but the costs of protests are borne by individuals.

\[ U = PB - C \]

\(U\) is the expected benefit of protesting

\(PB\) is the (B)enefit times the (P)robability that the benefit depends on your participation

\(C\) is the cost or risk associated with protesting.

If you can enjoy this benefit without paying the costs, then not participating is always preferable to participating. So collective benefits probably can’t explain why anyone participates, even for really severe grievances!

Resource Mobilization Theory: Solving Free Rider Problems

  • What are some reasons someone might support a pressure campaign other than directly benefiting from the campaign’s success?
  • What are some reasons that an organization, politician, or donor might help support a pressure campaign?

Resource Mobilization Theory: Organizations

Groups need:

  • A pool of resources (donations, external political pressure, information) that can offset the costs of action.

    • These can be non-material (solidary benefits) or they can be more concrete

  • Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) that can channel resources toward effective actions

Resource Mobilization Theory: the NRA

The NRA is an SMO in the gun-rights movement. How do they offset the costs of participation?

Selective material incentives can help offset the costs of support

Resource Mobilization Theory: The Militia Movement

The Michigian Liberty Militia is also an SMO in the (broadly defined) gun rights movement. How do they offset the costs of collective action?

Non-material “solidary” benefits might include camaraderie or thrilling experiences or the warm fuzzy feeling of making a difference.

Resource Mobilization Theory: Civil Rights Activism

  • What kinds of protest resources are increasing in the late 1960s and early 1970s? For rank-and-file supporters? For other organizations? For politicians and party leaders?

Resource Mobilization Theory: Elite Support for traditional organizations

Marger, Martin N. “Social movement organizations and response to environmental change: The NAACP, 1960-1973.” Social Problems 32.1 (1984): 16-30.

Marger, Martin N. “Social movement organizations and response to environmental change: The NAACP, 1960-1973.” Social Problems 32.1 (1984): 16-30.

Resource Mobilization Theory: Explaining diverse tactics

  • Fewer resources = more solidary benefits, but also a very different kind of supporter. Requires dedication and “strong ties”

  • Some marketplaces are saturated: you can’t compete directly with the NRA, so you might need to offer a different reward entirely.

Resource Mobilization Theory: Strategic dilemmas

  • What are the costs/benefits associated with gaining the support of conscience constituents, elite donors, or isolated members?

  • What are the costs/benefits associated with gaining the support of highly motivated activists for riskier activism?

  • Can seeking resources sometimes cause movements to undermine or alter their goals? How do contemporary movements like BLM attempt to address these costs/benefits?

The Political Process Model

  • Closely related to (maybe contains) resource mobilization theory

  • Emphasizes the role of the political system itself in explaining the emergence of protest, particularly the political opportunity structure

Political Opportunity Structures

Definition: “consistent – but not necessarily formal or permanent – dimensions of the political struggle that encourage people to engage in contentious politics” - Sidney Tarrow

Examples:

  • Accessible institutions

  • Elite support or opposition

  • State ability/will to use repression

  • State capacity to implement new policies

Political Opportunity Structures: Eisenger (1971)

Question: Protest is one tool in the toolkit.

  • How does it create political pressure?

  • What are the alternatives?

  • Why choose it over other options?

Political Opportunity Structures: Why protest?

  • Model 1: Protest is an expression of frustration with a closed system

  • Model 2: Protest is an attempt to gain the support of sympathetic third parties when other methods are not available.

What are some empirical implications of one model vs the other?

Political Opportunity Structures: Eisenger (1971)

  • Outcome: level of black protest activity in 43 US cities in 1968

  • Measures:

    • DV: protest activity collected from newspaper data

    • IV: openness of the opportunity structure as measured by:

      • Mayoral + (as opposed to city manager)

      • Ward system + (as opposed to at-large)

      • Partisan Elections + (as opposed to non-partisan)